Corregido por Shane R. Jimerson, Ph.D.
Contribuido por a los estudiantes graduados en el programa del asesoramiento, clínico, y
de la escuela de la psicología en la universidad de California, Santa Barbara

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Desorden De la Hiperactividad De Defecit De la Atención
 

    El desorden de la hiperactividad del déficit de la atención (ADHD) es uno de los desórdenes del comportamiento lo
más comúnmente posible diagnosticados durante niñez (Tannock y Schachar, 1996; Shaywitz, Fletcher Y Shaywitz,
1994; Shelton Y Barkley, 1994; Kavanagh Y Lyon, 1994; Barkley, 1990b). ADHD incluye un arsenal heterogéneo de
síntomas que solape marcado con desorden desafiante del oppositional, desorden de la conducta, desórdenes afectivos
tales como ansiedad, inhabilidades el aprender, y desórdenes de la comunicación. ADHD se diagnostica generalmente
en niños jóvenes antes de la edad de siete, y ahora se sabe para persistir a través de la esperanza de vida (Shywitz,
Fletcher y Shaywitz, 1994). ADHD es caracterizado por un modelo persistente de síntomas del comportamiento de la
inatención, de la hiperactividad, y del impulsivity (APA, 1994; Barkley, 1990a, 1990b). Han encontrado a los niños
que mostraban los comportamientos que son características de ADHD para ser altamente " en-riesgo " para los
resultados educativos y sociales maladaptive. Actualmente, las preguntas rodean el causes/etiology y la diagnosis de este
desorden.
 

Criterios de DSM-IV para ADHD

    Fuente: El diagnóstico y el manual estadístico de desórdenes mentales - cuarto Ed.(APA, 1994) enumera 18 criterios
de diagnóstico para el desorden de Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity (p. 83-85):

A. O (1) o (2):

  (1) seises (o más) de los síntomas siguientes de la inatención han persistido por por lo menos 6 meses a un grado que
es maladaptive y contrario con el nivel de desarrollo:
 Inatención
 (a) no puede dar la atención cercana a los detalles ni incurre en a menudo equivocaciones descuidadas en schoolwork,
trabajo, u otras actividades
 (b) tiene a menudo atención que sostiene de la dificultad en tareas o actividades del juego
 (c) no se parece a menudo escuchar cuando está hablado a directamente
 (d) no sigue a menudo a través en instrucciones y
 no puede acabar el schoolwork, tareas, o deberes en el lugar de trabajo (no debido al comportamiento del oppositional
 o incidente de entender instrucciones)
 (e) tiene a menudo tareas y actividades de la ordenación de la dificultad
 (f) evita, tiene aversión, o es a menudo renuente enganchar a las tareas que requieren el esfuerzo mental sostenido (tal
 como schoolwork o preparación)
 (g) pierde a menudo las cosas necesarias para las tareas o las actividades (e.g. juguetes, asignaciones de la escuela,
lápices,
 libros, o herramientas)
 (h) a menudo es distraído fácilmente por los estímulos extraños
 (i) es a menudo olvidadizo en actividades diarias

  (2) seises (o más) de los síntomas siguientes de la hiperactividad-impulsivity han persistido por  por lo menos 6 meses
a un grado que es maladaptive y
 contrario con el nivel de desarrollo:

 Hiperactividad
 (a) inquieta con las manos o los pies o se retuerce a menudo en asiento
 (b) sale a menudo del asiento en sala de clase o en otras situaciones en las cuales restante asentado espere
 (c) se ejecuta a menudo alrededor o sube excesivamente en las situaciones en las cuales es inadecuado (en adolescentes
o adultos, puede ser limitado a las sensaciones subjetivas del restlessness)
 (d) tiene a menudo dificultad el jugar o el enganchar a pasatiempos reservado
 (e) está a menudo " en el ir " o a menudo los actos como si " conducido cerca
 un motor "
 (f) habla a menudo excesivamente

 Impulsivity
 (g) los blurts fuera de respuestas antes de preguntas han estado a menudo
 terminado
 (h) tiene a menudo dificultad el aguardar de vuelta
 (i) interrumpe o impone a menudo en otros (e.g., los topes
 en conversaciones o juegos)

B. Algunos síntomas hiperactivo-impulsivos o desatentos que causaron la debilitación estaban presentes antes de edad 7
años

C. Una cierta debilitación de los síntomas está presente en dos o más configuraciones (e.g., en la escuela [ o el trabajo ]
y en el país).

D. Debe haber evidencia clara de la debilitación clínico significativa en el funcionamiento social, académico,
u ocupacional.

E. Los síntomas no ocurren exclusivamente durante el curso del desorden de desarrollo penetrante, de la esquizofrenia,
o del otro desorden sicopático y no son mejores considerados por otro desorden mental (e.g., desorden del humor,
desorden de la ansiedad, desorden de Dissociative, o un desorden de la personalidad).

Información Epidemiológica

    Los niños y los adolescentes diagnosticados con ADHD abarcan sobre 3% a 5% de la población escuela-school-aged
en los Estados Unidos (Barkley, 1990). A menudo, los síntomas de este desorden son principio evidente en niñez
temprana y extienden en edad adulta. De hecho, ha estado señalado que 50% de los niños diagnosticados con ADHD
como preschoolers o recibirá una diagnosis similar en una edad posterior (Campbell, 1990) y/o continuará exhibiendo
síntomas de este desorden en la edad adulta (Barkley, Fischer et., 1990; *** TRANSLATION ENDS HERE ***nbsp;
Gittelman et al., 1985;  Weiss & Hechtman, 1993).  Based on the number of children diagnosed with ADHD, the
number of boys diagnosed with ADHD outnumber girls by at least 3 to 1 (and as high as 9 to 1 in certain settings.)
     The symptoms of this disorder are closely tied to behavioral difficulties.  And as a result, it has been documented that
about 40% of referrals to child guidance clinics are associated with children diagnosed with this disorder (Barkley,
1990).  Over 60% of adolescents with ADHD have been documented to be defiant in comparison to 11% of the
non-ADHD population (Barkley, Fischer, Edelbrock & Smallish, 1990).  As adults, it has been estimated that 33% will
not complete high school, with only 5% completing a college degree (Barkley, Fischer et al., 1990).  Almost 1 in 4 of
these individuals is likely to develop chronic maladaptive patterns such as substance abuse, occupational instability, and
interpersonal difficulties (Barkley, Fischer et al., 1990).  About one-third of this population are estimated to be resilient,
meaning they find adaptive means to cope with the disorder (Barkley, 1990).

Articles

     Bradley, K., & DuPaul, G.J. (1997).  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In Bear, Minke & Thomas, (Eds.),
Children’s needs II:  Development, problems, and alternatives,  Bethesda, Maryland:  National Association of School
Psychologists.

     The authors of this article discussed the issues surrounding attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder from a school
psychology perspective.  More specifically, this chapter highlighted the reasons why those who are diagnosed with this
disorder are particularly problematic within a school environment.
 From a developmental perspective, studies were given in this chapter to illustrate the chronic behavioral problems (from
early childhood to adulthood) faced by those who exhibit the symptoms of this disorder.  Additionally, a five stage
model for assessment and alternative actions was listed to assist school personnel (in particular, school psychologists)
in working with this population of children.
 

     Buitelaar, J. K. & van Engeland, H. (1996).  Epidemiological approaches.  In Sandberg (Ed.) Hyperactivity
disorders of childhood.  Cambridge, MA:  Cambridge University Press.

     This chapter depicts epidemiology as:  (1)  the assessment of the prevalence rate of a disorder;  (2)  the distribution of
the disorder;  and (3)  how a particular individual develops the disorder.  In the domain of epidemiological studies of
hyperactivity disorders, differences in methodology were cited as the reason for contradicting results from existing
studies.  Further, the need to study hyperactivity from a developmental perspective was stressed.
 Thus, for future epidemiological studies, the author called for a need to unify assessments and procedures.
Additionally, the use of multiple assessment instruments together with neuropsychological/psychophysiological
designs, familial-genetic assessments, and examination of family-interaction patterns must be considered.  Finally, the
association between pervasive and situational hyperactivity and the validity of attention deficit without hyperactivity
should be considered.

     Arnold, E. (1996).  Sex differences in ADHD:  Conference Summary.  Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24,
5, 555-569.

     An NIMH conference (November, 1994) addressed epidemiological, theoretical, and diagnostic issues of ADHD.
Participants suggested that prototypical clinic referrals are male, however females with ADHD have been largely ignored
in the research literature.  Given a 3 - 5 % incidence rate and a 3:1 male/female ratio of the probable prevalence of this
disorder, if even 1% of females were diagnosed with ADHD, it would translate to 125 million girls and women
nationally with this disorder.  The differential referral rate reflects the fact that girls express less hyperactivity than
same-age boys, and have a lower incidence of conduct disorder, delinquency, and aggression.  A meta-analysis
reported by Gaub & Carlson suggested that clinic-referred girls have greater attentional and intellectual impairment
across all IQ scales than referred boys, suggesting that girls with ADHD have more serious cognitive and linguistic
symptoms.
     As a group, girls have a lower base rate of inattention and hyperactivity as measured by rating scales, and may have
to deviate much more than boys do from their peers to be identified. Discussion surrounded whether there should be
sex-specific criteria for this disorder.  There may be sex differences in life course, as evidenced by a higher proportion
of self-referrals for ADHD by females over the age of 17, and higher rates of adolescent pregnancy and substance abuse
by young women with ADHD as compared with peers.  Differential treatments need to be considered as well;  at
present, psychosocial treatments for ADHD tend to target oppositional and aggressive behaviors, whereas
self-organization and internalizing symptoms may be a greater need for females.  Research which over-samples females,
reporting of effect size, investigation of comorbidity in females, and examination of the disorder over the life course is
needed.
 

 Shaywitz, S. E., Fletcher, J. M., & Shaywitz, B. A. (1994).  Issues in the classification of attention deficit disorder.
Topics in Language Disorders, 14, 4, 1-25.

     The authors assert that a definition of ADHD which would provide more homogeneous diagnostic groups is needed.
Apparent confusion exists between the behavioral symptoms of attention deficit disorder and the psychological construct
of attention, as researchers have not been able to demonstrate a clear link between the behaviors which are used for
diagnosis and measures relating to the psychological construct of attention.
     Children currently diagnosed with ADHD represent a heterogeneous group.  Factor analysis of the Yale Children’s
Inventory identified two factors that need to be considered in diagnosis:  a “cognitive” component which includes
academic, linguistic, cognitive and fine motor impairments, and a “behavior” factor which is marked by overactivity,
impulsivity, aggression, and negative affect.  It may be that two distinct subgroups of children would result from this
classification system:  the cognitive group would correspond to the Inattentive symptom cluster identified in DSM-IV
(APA, 1994) and would display severe academic underachievement with information-processing deficits, while the
behavioral group corresponds to the Hyperactivity-Impulsivity domains (DSM-IV), with manifest behavioral,
oppositional and conduct problems.  Development of assessment instruments is closely associated with definition and
classification in ADHD research.
 

Conclusion

 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is one of the most prevalent childhood disturbances in the United States,
affecting upward of 400 million children and adolescents.  Academic functioning, peer and social relationships, family
dynamics, health status, and future occupational performance are at risk for maladaptive outcomes for children
diagnosed with ADHD.  Males are diagnosed with ADHD at three times the rate of females.  Given the overlap of
ADHD with learning disabilities, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and antisocial personality traits,
psychologists need to assess related domains of functioning when addressing a referral question regarding ADHD.
 

References
 

 American Psychiatric Association.  (1994).  Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (Fourth Edition).
Washington, D.C.:  Author.
 

 Arnold, E. (1996).  Sex differences in ADHD:  Conference Summary.  Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 5,
555-569.

 Barkley, R. A. (1990a).  Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder:  A handbook for diagnosis and treatment.  New
York:  Guilford Press.
 

 Barkley, R. A. (1990b).  Attention deficit disorders:  History, definition, and diagnosis.  In D. Cicchetti & D. Cohen
(Eds.) Developmental psychopathology:  Volume I:  Theory and methods. (pp. 65-75).  New York:  John Wiley &
Sons.
 

 Barkley, R. A. (1995).  What is attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder?  Understanding ADHD:  The complete,
authoritative guide for parents (pp.17-42).  New York:  Guilford Press.

 Barkley, R. A., Fischer, J., Edelbrock, C., & Smallish, M. (1990).  The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children
diagnosed by research criteria:  An eight year follow-up study.  Journal of the American Academy of Child and
Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 546-557.
 

 Buitelaar, J. K. & van Engeland, H. (1996).  Epidemiological approaches.  In Sandberg (Ed.) Hyperactivity disorders
of childhood.  Cambridge, MA:  Cambridge University Press.

 Campbell, S. B. (1990).  Behavior problems in preschool children:  Clinical and developmental issues.  New York:
Guilford Press.
 

 Kavanagh, J. F. & Lyon, G. R. (1994).  Foreword.  Topics in Language Disorders, 14, 4, v-vii
 

 Shaywitz, B. A., Fletcher, J. M., & Shaywitz, S.E. (1994).  Defining and classifying learning disabilities and
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.  Journal of Child Neurology, 10, Supplement No. 1, S50-S57.
 

 Shaywitz, S. E., Fletcher, J. M., & Shaywitz, B. A. (1994).  Issues in the classification of attention deficit disorder.
Topics in Language Disorders, 14, 4, 1-25.
 

 Shelton, T. L. & Barkley, R. A. (1994).  Critical issues in the assessment of attention deficit disorders in children.
Topics in Language Disorders, 14, 4, 26-41.
 

 Tannock, R. & Schachar, R. (1996).  Executive dysfunction as an underlying mechanism of behavior and language
problems in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.  In J. Beitchman, N. Cohen, N. Konstantaraes, & R. Tannock
(Eds.) Language, learning, and behavior disorders:  developmental, biological, and clinical perspectives. (pp.
128-155). New York:  Cambridge University Press.
 

Useful Articles

 Barkley, R. A. (1995).  What is attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder?  Understanding ADHD:  The complete,
authoritative guide for parents (pp.17-42).  New York:  Guilford Press.

 In this book for parents, Barkley provides an overview of ADHD as a developmental disorder of self-control.  While
some children with mild cases may eventually bring their behavioral regulation within normal limits by the end of
adolescence, the majority of children with more severe forms of the disorder face academic failure and social ostracism
at some time during the developmental period. The disorder was first described in 1902 as a distinct cluster of
symptoms related to lack of willful inhibition, and is now recognized as an inability to sustain attention and to control
impulses and activity level.  Children with ADHD experience boredom much more quickly than do peers without the
disorder, they have difficulty following instructions and rules, their responses are highly variable, and they are
magnetically drawn to the most rewarding or “fun” aspects of any activity.
 Barkley states that 35-50% of children with ADHD are retained at least one grade, and 35% may fail to complete high
school.  As a group they take more risks;  20% to 30% of these youth go on to develop severe behavioral disorders
including antisocial behavior, delinquency, crime, and substance abuse.  Adolescents with ADHD are involved in four
times as many auto accidents which result in bodily injury than their non-ADHD peers, and receive three times as many
citations for speeding. As adults, they have difficulty holding on to certain types of jobs and experience problems with
impulsive spending and money management.

  Return to Contents

                             Conduct Disorder

                                          Symptoms
                                         Epidemiology
                                           Etiology
                                          Treatment

Authors, Roslyn Caldwell & Melvina Chase
                University of California, Santa Barbara

Conduct Disorder

 Conduct disorder (CD) encompasses a class of chronic, severe antisocial behavior that typically begins in early
childhood and extends into adulthood (Robins & Ratcliff, 1979).  Academically, children that exhibit these problematic
behaviors usually are difficult to teach in the traditional classroom environment, resulting in poor academic
performance. They oftentimes present learning disabilities and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.  Research also
shows that antisocial behavior is related to truancy and dropout rates.  Adolescents diagnosed with CD also appear more
susceptible to alcohol and substance abuse (Short & Shapiro, 1993).  The significance of conduct disorder results in
part from the fact that it constitutes one of the most frequent bases for referral of children and adolescents for
psychological and psychiatric problems, criminal behaviors, and social maladjustment when they become adults
(Kazdin, 1995). In addition, research has shown that the characteristics of this disorder can be passed on as antisocial
behavior in offspring, forming a cyclical pattern (Kazdin, 1995).  Therefore, the knowledge and research pertaining to
this childhood disorder can serve as a useful tool to clinicians, professionals, teachers, and the community.

DSM-IV Criteria of Conduct Disorder

Children with conduct disorder diagnosis may vary in symptoms and behaviors.  The following are a list of symptoms
relevant to this particular disorder according to the Diagnosis and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV)
criteria:

A repetitive and persistent pattern in which the rights or societal norms or rules are violated as manifested by the
presence of three or more of the following criteria in the past 12 months, with at least one criterion present in the past 6
months:

Aggression to people and animals

       often bullies, threatens, or intimidates others
       often initiates physical fights
       has used a weapon that can cause serious physical harm to others (e.g., a bat, brick, broken bottle, knife gun)
       has been physically cruel to people
       has been physically cruel to animals
       has stolen while confronting a victim (e.g., mugging, purse snatching, extortion, armed robbery)
       has forced someone into sexual activity

Destruction of property

       has deliberately engaged in fire setting with the intention of causing serious damage
       has deliberately destroyed others' property (other than by fire setting)

Deceitfulness or theft

       has broken into someone else's house, building or car
       often lies to obtain goods or favors or to avoid obligations (i.e., "cons" others)
       has stolen items of nontrivial value without confronting a victim (e.g., shoplifting, but without breaking and
entering; forgery)

Serious violation of rules

       often stays out at night despite parental prohibitions, beginning before age 13 years
       has run away from home overnight at least twice while living in parental or parental surrogate home (or once
without returning for a lengthy period)
       is often truant from school, beginning before age 13 years

The disturbance in behavior causes clinically significant impairment in social, academic, or occupational functioning.
If the individual is age 18 years or older, criteria are not met for Antisocial Personality Disorder
 

Type based on age at onset:

       Childhood-Onset Type: onset of at least one criterion characteristic of Conduct Disorder prior to age
       10 years
       Adolescent-Onset Type: absence of any criteria characteristic of Conduct Disorder prior to age 10 years

Severity:

Mild: few if any conduct problems in excess of those required to make the diagnosis and conduct problems cause only
minor harm to others

Moderate: number of conduct problems and effect on others intermediate between "mild" and "severe"

Severe: many conduct problems in excess of those required to make the diagnosis or conduct problems cause
considerable harm to others.

Source.  American Psychiatric Association.  (1994).  Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., p.
90-91).  Washington, DC:  Author.
 

Epidemiological Information

 The prevalence rate of conduct disorder is estimated between 2% to 6% among youths, with boys showing higher rates
of conduct disorder than girls.  Thus, conduct disorder occurs 3 or 4 times more likely in boys than girls.  Even though
conduct disorder is classified as a childhood disorder, the particular behaviors may occur over the course of a life span.
Generally, conduct disorder occurs at a higher rate for adolescents (approximately 7% for 12 to 16 year olds) than for
children (4% for 4 to 11 year olds) (Kazdin, 1995; Cohen et al., 1993).
 Historically, empirical evidence has shown that sex differences exist in the age of onset of this disorder.  The median
age of onset for this disorder has been found in the 8 to 10 year old range.  Most boys had an onset before the age of
10, while girls had onset ranging from the age of 14 to 16 years.  More recent research has suggested that the onset of
conduct disorder may be significant in relation to clinical course.  Conduct disorder symptoms emerging in childhood
are more likely to have a poorer prognosis than those emerging during adolescence.  It appears that conduct disorder
continues to prevail in more boys than girls overall.  The prevalence of boys tends to be higher in childhood and
declines over the ages 10-20.  Symptoms in girls appear to peak up to age 16 and decline thereafter.  This seems to
occur two or three years after menarche, and appears to be related to societal factors rather than hormonal changes.
 

Relevant Articles

 Barclay, M., & Hoffman, J. (1990). Conduct disorders. In M. Lewis and S. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of
Developmental Psychopathology Development and Psychopathology (pp. 109-118). New York: Plenum Press.

 This chapter presents an overview of conduct disorder in relation to other disorders, prevalence, stability of the
disorder and other variables that may affect one's diagnosis.  Specifically this chapter gives good correlates of how this
particular disorder effects other psychological variables that appear to be associated with this disorder.  These include
intelligence and cognitive skills, perceptual processes, impulsivity, need for stimulation, empathy, moral development,
and interpersonal relationships.

Cohen, P., Cohen, J., Kasen, S., Velez, C., Hartmark, C., Johnson, J., Rojas, M., Brook, J., & Streuning, E.
(1993). An epidemiological study of disorders in late childhood and adolescence- I.  Age and gender specific
prevalence. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 34 (6) 851-867.

 This article presents empirical information about the prevalence of oppositional disorder, conduct disorder and
depression across genders and age groups.  This provides important information about the populations served for these
disorders.  Moreover, it provides significant implications for the stages of implementing intervention and prevention
services.  This study revealed that conduct disorder was about twice as prevalent for boys than girls.  However, the
prevalence for boys was highest at younger ages (10-12) and higher for girls at older ages (14-16). The findings for the
other disorders were consistent with those for conduct disorders.  These results suggest that developmental trends in
boys and girls differ throughout the pre-adolescence and adolescence stages and may directly impact the rates of
behavior problems.
 

Kazdin, Alan E.(1995). Risk factors, onset, and course of dysfunction. In Conduct Disorders in Childhood and
Adolescence (2nd Edition) (pp. 50-74). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Since there are multiple factors that may contribute to a diagnosis of conduct disorder, this chapter gives a
comprehensive overview about the characteristics, events, and/or processes that may increase the risk for the onset of
conduct disorder.  Risk factors discussed in this chapter, include: child factors (child temperament, neuropsychological
deficits and difficulties, subclinical levels of conduct disorder and academic and intellectual performance); parent and
family factors (genetics, psychopathology and criminal behavior within the family, parent-child interaction, parental
separation, divorce, and marital discord, birth order and family size, and socioeconomic disadvantage); and school
related factors.  In addition, this chapter discusses the protective factors that are apparent with this behavior which
oftentimes leads to the mechanisms and processes leading to conduct disorder.  This chapter also gives characteristics of
conduct disorder over the life span, particularly in adulthood including specific behaviors related to one's social,
occupational, and educational environment with particular characteristics and patterns of this behavior.

Short, R. & Shapiro, S. (1993). Conduct disorders:  A framework for understanding and intervention in schools and
communities. School Psychology, 22(3)362-375.

 This article provides a comprehensive view of the epidemiology of conduct disorders as well as an examination of the
personal, family, school and peer effects. Conduct disorders differ from other childhood challenges due to the antisocial
behavior, the chronicity of such behavior as well as the impairment of functioning of those exhibiting such behaviors.
This disorder tends to exist in a stable form with  continual development into adulthood.  Historically research suggests
that most treatments are minimally effective, however, new efforts containing a multidimensional approach are being
explored.
   Examination of the collaboration of personal, family, school and peer components provides information on the
complex of CD as well as an avenue for providing interventions. Personal characteristics and features, such as
irritability, aggressiveness, and cognitive difficulties, are crucial for identifying markers for the onset of antisocial
behavior. The perpetuation of these characteristics is mitigated by experiences with parents, school and peers.  Each of
these components can intensify or minimize the extent to which antisocial behaviors are developed. Parent and family
effects can range from familial stress to member criminality or psychopathology to discipline practices. Additionally, the
quality of parent-child interactions can create, inadvertently encourage, or negate antisocial behavior.  This is often a
common area of change employed in interventions and a primary area of prevention.    The school environment is also
utilized in the diagnosis and treatment of conduct disorders. Ironically, it is the place where antisocial behavior has the
most dramatic and devastating effects.  The relationship between poor academic achievement and antisocial behaviors is
greatly documented. Along with interactions with parents, school personnel, peer group relations are impacted by
antisocial behaviors.  Children may be rejected by peers in response to negative behaviors. On the other hand, children
exhibiting conduct disorders may join with other similar children which results in a further manifestation of the
problem.

Conclusion

There are many factors that affect the development of conduct disorder in children and adolescents.  Therefore, a
multidimensional assessment of educational, personal, familial, societal influences are necessary in order to provide a
comprehensive examination of one's behaviors and characteristics.  Research suggests that children exhibiting conduct
disorders are more likely to develop life-long problems involving education, occupations, interpersonal relations,
health, criminality, and mental health (Kazdin, 1987).
 
 

References

Cohen, P., Cohen, J., Kasen, S., Velez, C., Hartmark, C., Johnson, J., Rojas, M., Brook, J., & Streuning, E.
(1993). An epidemiological study of disorders in late childhood and adolescence- I.  Age and gender specific
prevalence. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 34 (6) 851-867.

Frick, P.  (1993).  Childhood conduct problems in a family context. School Psychology,  22(3),376-385.

Kazdin, Alan E. (1995). Risk factors, onset, and course of dysfunction. In Conduct Disorders in Childhood and
Adolescence (2nd Edition) (pp. 50-74). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Kazdin, A.  (1987).  Conduct disorders in childhood and adolescence. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

 Robions, L. & Ratcliff, K.  (1979).  Risk Factors in the continuation of childhood antisocial behavior into adul